Components Of The Operating System

The operating system comprises a set of software packages that can be used to manage interactions with the hardware . The following elements are generally included in this set of software:

1.The Kernel:- It represents the operating system’s basic functions such as management of memory, processes, files, main input/output’s and communication functionalities.

2.The shell:- It allowing communication with the operating system via a control language, letting the user control the peripherals without knowing the characteristics of the hardware used ,management of physical addresses, etc.


3.The file system:- It allowes files to be recorded in a tree structure.

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Additional Operating System Functions

Additional functions exist not for helping the user but rather for ensuring efficient system operations.

1.Resource Allocation:- operating system allocate resources to multiple users or multiple jobs running at the same time.

2.Accounting:- operating system keep track of and record which users use how much and what kinds of computer resources for account billing or for accumulating usage statistics.

3.Protection:- operating system ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

Operating System Services

Following services are provided by the operating system:


1.User Interface:- Almost all Operating System have a user interface. This interface can take several forms.
A.Command line interface:- which used text commands and a method for entering them.
B.Graphical User Interface:- Here, the interface is a window system with a pointing device to direct input/output, choice from menus and make selections and a keyboard to enter text.

2.Program Development:- Operating System provides a set of utility programs e.g. Editors, debuggers etc. to assist the programmer in creating programs.


3.Program Execution:- A number of tasks needed to be performed to execute a program. Instructions and data must be loaded into main memory, input/output devices must be initialized and other resources must be prepared. The operating system handles these scheduling tasks.


4.Input/output Operations:- A running program requires input/output which comes from a file or an input/output device. For specific devices, specific functions/instructions may be desired for operation. The operating system provides a uniform interface that hides these details so that the programmer can access such devices using simple reads and writes.


5.File System manipulation:- in the case of files, the Operating System does not only keep the details of the nature of input/output devices but also the structure of the data contained in the files of the storage medium. The operating system may provided protection mechanism (permission management) to allow or deny access to files or directories based on file ownership.


6.Communications:- Operating System aids in exchange of information between processes executing either on the same computer or on different systems tied together by a network. Implemented via shared memory or message passing.


7.Error Detection:- Operating System ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the CPU, memory, hardware, input/output devices or in user programs.





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Operating System As A User & Computer Interface (UI, CI)

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Operating System As A User/Computer Interface:

A modern computer system consists of one or more processors, memory(primary and secondary), clocks, terminals, disks, network interfaces and other input/output devices. All in a complex system. Writing programs that keep track of all these components and use them correctly is an extremely difficult job. So, a layer of software is put on top of the bare hardware, to manage all parts of the system, and present the user with an interface or virtual machine that is easier to understand and program. This layer of software is the operating system.












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Objectives Of Operating System

Operating system has following objectives:

1.Convenience:- An operating system makes a computer more convenient to use.


2.Efficiency:- An operating system allows the computer system resources to be used in an efficient manner.


3.Ability to evolve:- An operating system should be constructed in such a way as to permit the effective development, testing and introduction of new system functions without interfering with services.








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       Operating System Goals
       OS Efficiency, Convenience, Ability to evolve

Introduction To Operating System

Definition and Goal of operating system:
An operating system is a program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. Its primary goal is to:
i)  Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
ii) Make the computer system convenient to use.

“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel. Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program.

few more Operating System Definition 

A.Operating System is a resource allocator 

1.Manages all resources. 

2.Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use. 

B.Operating System is a control program 

1.Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer.

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   Operating System Definition

   Resource Allocator

   OS Control Program

Types Of Memory Cards for Computer, Mobile Phones and Digital Camera

1.PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) - The PCMCIA standard has been expanded several times and are suitable for many types of devices. There are three types of PCMCIA cards-

Type I cards can be up to 3.3 mm thick, and are used primarily for adding additional ROM or RAM to a computer.

Type II cards can be up to 5.5 mm thick. These cards are often used for modem and fax modem cards.

Type III cards can be up to 10.5 mm thick, which is sufficiently large for portable disk drives.

2.Compact Flash - Compact Flash is the de facto standard to flash memory Storage. It is used everywhere from digital cameras to MP3 players to embedded systems. There are two variants of Compact Flash: Type 1 & Type 2. CF Type 2 cards are a little bit thicker than CF type I Cards. Currently CF Type 2 cards house devices like Micro drive and WiFi network Card. CF cards are very robust and industrially proven to be reliable.

3.Secure Digital card - Secure Digital card is basically the second generation Multimedia Card. They are exactly the same as MMC physically, other than the extra locking switch on the SD Card. The locking switch prevents data from being read, written, and deleted from the storage card. A SD Card device can also read and write MMC.

mini Secure Digital card -Recently a new smaller SD Card has emerged on the market. It is called the mini SD Card. The card is originally intended for use in mobile phones and miniature electronics, such as MP3 players.

micro Secure Digital card - The micro SD Card is even smaller than the miniSD Card. The micro SD Card is designed for use in cellular phones and small mobile devices. The micro SD Card can accessed in a SD Card slot via an adapter.

4.Multimedia Card - The Multimedia Card (MMC) standard was introduced by SanDisk and Siemens in 1997. MMC is smaller but slightly thicker than the Smart Media cards. Its interface pins are on its backside and lay similarly to Memory Stick. The card itself is 32 mm x 24 mm x 1.4mm and is often used in place of the SD card. Transfer speeds of a MMC is around 2.5MB/s and they can often be used in SD Card readers.

5. Sony Memory Sticks - Sony Memory Sticks are light, compact and designed for a wide variety of devices including digital cameras, recorders, and more. Memory Stick uses a serial interface to transfer data between the host device and card.

        Memory Stick PRO - Sony Memory Stick PRO is the new Standard to eliminate the 128 MB limitation. Currently, Memory Stick PRO is available up to 1 GB. Memory Stick PRO will not work in devices that only support the standard Memory Stick. But Memory Stick PRO devices are compatible with the original Memory Stick. Today, all 128MB, and under, cards are Memory Stick, while all larger cards are Memory Stick PRO.

         Memory Stick Duo - Memory Stick Duo and Memory Stick Pro Duo are basically smaller versions of the Memory Stick and Memory Stick Pro. The Duo has pin-to-pin compatibility with its older and larger Memory Stick sibling.

6. Smart Media - Introduced by Toshiba in 1995 . Smart Media card is the first challenger to the flash memory market. It is smaller and thinner than the CF cards. It also has contact pins directly on the surface of the card.

7. xD-Picture Card - xD-Picture Card is a contender invented and promoted by Olympus and Fuji. the xD-Picture Card is a type of removable flash memory designed for use in digital cameras. The xD is ultra-compact with its size of 20mm x 25mm x 1.7mm.







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      Digital Camera Memory Cards
      Mobile Phones Memory Cards